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Glossary
= A-C = A ABC transporters ATP binding cassette transporters, active up gradient carriers (vs SLC) Acid - neutral 7.0, gastric juice 3, acid-labile - Liable to change; easily altered. Of or characterized by emotions that are easily aroused or freely expressed, and that tend to alter quickly and spontaneously; emotional... acyclic hydrocarbons - http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/class/hydro.html Adenosene triphosphate (ATP) converted by hydrolysis releases energy (ATP->ADP->AMP) ;Absorption:In pharmacology (and more specifically pharmacokinetics), absorption is the movement of a drug into the bloodstream. Absorption involves several phases. First, the drug needs to be introduced via some route of administration (oral, via the skin, etc.) and in a specific dosage form such as a tablet, capsule, and so on. ;Adsorption:the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface.1 This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent. This process differs from absorption alkaline, a soluble base afferent vs(efferent) - Conveying towards a center, for example the afferent arterioles conveying blood towards the Bowman's capsule in the Kidney. Opposite to Efferent. ;Aldosterone: A steroid hormone that acts to reabsorb sodium and increases blood pressure. also adrenal cortical hormone regulator of sodium and potassium balance Aliquot in pharmaceutics, a method of measuring ingredients below the sensitivity of a scale by proportional dilution with inactive ingredients Amylases - disgestive enzymes (Ptyalin) saliva contains amylase (Ptyalin) which breaks down some carbohydrates into maltose and glucose ;Amines: organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Derivatives of ammonia. ;Androgen : also called androgenic hormone or testoid, is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. ;angiogenesis: is the formation of new vessels ;Angstrom: 100,000 fm ;antihypertensive calcium antagonists: can inhibit the proliferation and growth of smooth muscle cells, and antagonise protein synthesis of collagen in extra cellular matrix ;Apheresis :( ἀφαίρεσις (aphairesis, “a taking away”)) is a medical technology in which the blood of a donor or patient is passed through an apparatus that separates out one particular constituent and returns the remainder to the circulation. It is thus an extracorporeal therapy. ;aquaporins : ;Aramids : synthetic polymers such as kevlar ;Arterioles : endothelium surrounded by a layer of smooth muscle only one cell thick ;Aspartyl proteinases: ;Asters : a cellular structure shaped like a star formed around the centosome during mitosis ;Atomic Orbital : characterised by n, l, m quantum numbers, s,p,d,f orbitals have angular quantum number 0,1,2,3 (@todo read http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital) ;Atrioventricular: ;autocrine : denoting the effect of a hormone on cells that produce it. ;Autolysis: also self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its own enzymes. It may also refer to the digestion of an enzyme by another molecule of the same enzyme. ;Autolytic cell destruction: uncommon in living adult organisms and usually occurs in injured cells or dying tissue. Autolysis is initiated by the cells' lysosomes releasing digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm. These enzymes are however released due to the cessation of active processes in the cell, not as an active process. B base, a soluble base is referred to as an alkali if it contains and release OH^- a base can accept protons/hydrogen ions ph neutral 7.0 blood plasma 7.4, urine 8.0 Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon and was recognized as the first aromatic hydrocarbon ;Bicyclic: A molecule that features 2 fused rings. Bile (or gall) is a thick, greenish-yellow alkaline (pH > 7) fluid that assists in digestion by breaking down fats, mostly triglycerides, into monoglycerides and fatty acids. ;binding assays : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_binding_assay Binding assay targets are divided in several classes: non-peptide receptors, peptide receptors, nuclear receptors, ion channels, amine transporters. ;Bioassay : the estimation of the concentration or potency of a substance by measurement of the biological response it produces ;Bioavailability :is the fraction of the drug that is found in the blood. ;Bioisosteres : are substituents or groups with similar physical or chemical properties which produce broadly similar biological properties to a chemical compound. In drug design, the purpose of exchanging one bioisostere for another is to enhance the desired biological or physical properties of a compound without making significant changes in chemical structure. The main use of this term and it techniques are related to pharmaceutical sciences. Bioisosterism is used to reduce toxicity or modify the activity of the lead compound, and may alter the metabolism of the lead. ;Biosynthesis :(also called biogenesis) is an enzyme-catalyzed process in cells of living organisms by which substrates are converted to more complex products. Formation of a chemical compound by a living organism. Also called biogenesis. ;brachio : relating to the arm ;bradycardia: ;buccal : Of or relating to the cheeks or the mouth cavity. C ;Capillary : one of the minute vessels connecting the arterioles and venules, the walls of which act as a semipermeable membrane for interchange of various substances between the blood and tissue fluid. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/fenestrated+capillaries ;Capsid: the protein coat which contains the viral nucleic acid ;Carcinoma : malignant tumor originating from epithelial cells, which are termed carcinoma. Common malignancies, such as breast, colon, and lung cancer, are almost always carcinoma. Cascade super fusion technique ;CD-4: surface protein expressed by helper T-lymphocytes which is recognized by HIV virus ;Cellulose : plants use this sugar based polymer to make their tissues ;Cholesterol : a fatty molecule, which can be obtained from diet or synthesised in cells. It is transported around the body by particles known as LDL and HDL. ;Chronic diseases : diseases of long duration and generally slow progression. Chronic diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes, are by far the leading cause of mortality in the world, representing 63% of all deaths. Out of the 36 million people who died from chronic disease in 2008, nine million were under 60 and ninety per cent of these premature deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries. ;Chronotropic effects : (from chrono-, meaning time, and tropos, "a turn") are those that change the heart rate. ;Chronotropic drugs: change the heart rate by affecting the nerves controlling the heart, or by changing the rhythm produced by the sinoatrial node. Positive chronotropes increase heart rate; negative chronotropes decrease heart rate. ;Collagen : abundant structural protein, damaged collagen causes scurvy ;Commensals : share the body space without causing disease ;Competitive reversible inhibitor: ;Consanguineous:Relating to or denoting people descended from the same ancestor. ;convergent therapy: The concept of using two agents that target the same viral mechanism has been called convergent therapy. The underlying rationale is that use of two agents with different resistance mutations will select for a mutated virus that was less able to replicate. cytoplastmic cytotoxic D diffusion controlled Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of the particles. Digitalis (play /ˌdɪdʒɨˈteɪlɨs/2 or /ˌdɪdʒɨˈtælɨs/3) is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and biennials that are commonly called foxgloves. dihydrotestosterone (DHT) - more potent androgen dimer - a molecule composed of 2 identical simpler molecules diols - chemical compounds containing two hydroxl groups (--OH), common in nature, examples are sugars and their polymers cellulose. http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/350/Carey5th/Ch15/ch15-0.html ;distal tubule:The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system. ;domains of life: bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes (the three domains of life on Earth), have significantly different structures and RNA sequences. dyslipidemic E ;Efferent : (vs afferent) - Conveying away from a center, for example the efferent arterioles conveying blood away from the Bowman's capsule in the kidney. Opposite to afferent. ;Enantiomorphism : Either of a pair of crystals, molecules, or compounds that are mirror images of each other but are not identical, and that rotate the plane of polarized light equally, but in opposite directions. Also called enantiomer, optical isomer. ;Endogeneous : Biochemistry . pertaining to the metabolism of nitrogenous elements of cells and tissues. Biology . growing or developing from within; originating within. ;Endosome : a membrane-bound compartment inside eukaryotic cells. It is a compartment of the endocytic membrane transport pathway from the plasma membrane to the lysosome. Molecules internalized from the plasma membrane can follow this pathway all the way to lysosomes for degradation, or they can be recycled back to the plasma membrane. ;Enteral : is a term used to describe routes of drug administration that involve absorption of the drug through the gastrointestinal tract. ;Endocytosis : a process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane. The process which is the opposite to endocytosis is exocytosis. ;Enzymes : proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions.12 In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates sufficient for life. Enzyme is greek for "in yeast" endothelium - A thin layer of flat epithelial cells that lines serous cavities, lymph vessels, and blood vessels. ;Enols :(also known as alkenols) are alkenes with a hydroxyl group affixed to one of the carbon atoms composing the double bond. Alkenes with a hydroxyl group on both sides of the double bond are called enediols ;enolate : Deprotonated anions of enols are called enolates. ;ephinephrines: ;ESBL:Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase ;essential hypertension: ;Etiology :is the study of causation, or origination. The word is derived from the Greek αἰτιολογία, aitiologia, "giving a reason for" ;exocytic: F ;fenestrated capillaries : one of the two major types of capillaries, found in the intestinal mucosa, renal glomeruli, pancreas, endocrine glands, and other tissues, and characterized by the presence of circular fenestrae or pores that penetrate the endothelium; these pores may be closed by a very thin diaphragm. ;fibrates : a class of amphipathic carboxylic acids. They are used for a range of metabolic disorders, mainly hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol), and are therefore hypolipidemic agents. ;Fibrosis : the formation of excess connective tissue ;functional groups :are lexicon-specific groups of atoms or bonds within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. = G-I = G ;Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) : mouth, throat, stomach, and upper and lower intestines (graham) ;genotoxicity: describes a deleterious action on a cell's genetic material affecting its integrity. This includes both certain chemical compounds and certain types of radiation. ;gingival hyperplasia: ;Glomerula: ;Glycerol: ;Glycopeptides: ;glycolysis : sugar splitting ;glycosidic bond: is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate. ;gonad : the organ that makes gametes. The gonads in males are the testes and the gonads in females are the ovaries. ;gyrase: an enzyme involved in DNA unwinding ;Guanosine triphosphate GTP: is a purine nucleoside triphosphate. It can act as a substrate for the synthesis of RNA during the transcription process. Its structure is similar to that of the guanine nucleobase, the only difference being that nucleotides like GTP have a ribose sugar and three phosphates H ;haemodialysis : (also haemodialysis) is a method for extracorporeal removing waste products such as creatinine and urea, as well as free water from the blood when the kidneys are in renal failure ;heart block: ;heterocyclic compound : a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s) homology - In chemistry, homology refers to the appearance of homologues. A homologue (also spelled as homolog) is a compound belonging to a series of compounds differing from each other by a repeating unit, such as a methylene group, a peptide residue, etc.1 ;huntingdon's disease: caused by a genetic defect on chromosome 4. The defect causes a part of DNA, called a CAG repeat, to occur many more times than it is supposed to. Normally, this section of DNA is repeated 10 to 28 times. But in persons with Huntington's disease, it is repeated 36 to 120 times. ;hydrolysis: hypertrophy - an increase in the volume of an organ due to the enlargement of its component cells (as opposed to hyperplamia) I ;Immunogenicity: the ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or animal. ;immunoreactive renin: ;in vitro: in the lab, in a test tube ;in vivo: in a biological experiment, using a whole living organism ;inotrope :(play /ˈaɪnɵtroʊp/; from Greek in-, meaning fibre or sinew) is an agent that alters the force or energy of muscular contractions. Negatively inotropic agents weaken the force of muscular contractions. Positively inotropic agents increase the strength of muscular contraction. ionizable groups ;innervates : Supply (an organ or other body part) with nerves. ;intercalators: as anti-cancer drugs these compounds to stabilize the DNA-intercalator-topoisomerase II ternary complex ;ischemia : thinning or restriction to the blood supply causing a shortage of oxygen needed for cellular metabolism noradrenaline is a transmitter released by sympathetic nerve terminals ;indications: an indication is a valid reason to use a certain test, medication, procedure or surgery. The opposite of indication is contraindication. if a drug is prescribed or taken outside its applied indications, such use is termed off-label J juxtaglomerular JG K Kinesin - cellular ;Kinase: an enzyma which transfers phosphate groups from high-energy donor molecules, sich as ATP to specific substrates L ;Lability: refers to something that is constantly undergoing change or something that is likely to undergo change. ;Lacrimal : Of or relating to tears. ; Lead compound : in drug discovery is a chemical compound that has pharmacological or biological activity and whose chemical structure is used as a starting point for chemical modifications in order to improve potency, selectivity, or pharmacokinetic parameters. ;Liposomes : minute vesicles ;Lochia : post-partnum discharge containing blood, mucus and placental tissue P5- fith day after birth ;ligand : from the Latin ligandum - binding, is a substance (usually a small molecule), that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. In a narrower sense, it is a signal triggering molecule, binding to a site on a target protein. ;lumen : in biology is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine.1 By extension, a lumen can also be the inside space of a cellular component or structure, such as the endoplasmic reticulum. ;lysis: cells bursts because osmotic pressure causes water to enter cell until membrane breaks ;Lysosomes: are cellular organelles that contain acid hydrolase that break down waste materials and cellular debris. These are non-specific. They can be described as the stomach of the cell. They are found in animal cells, while their existence in yeasts and plants are disputed. M ;Macrolides: are protein synthesis inhibitors. macrolides are a group of drugs (typically antibiotics) whose activity stems from the presence of a macrolide ring, a large macrocyclic lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars, usually cladinose and desosamine, may be attached. ;macula densa cells : ;Mesangial cells : specialized cells around blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium. ;metals : typically non-molecular ;microsomal:In cell biology, microsomes are vesicle-like artifacts re-formed from pieces of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) when eukaryotic cells are broken-up in the laboratory; by definition, microsomes are not ordinarily present in living cells.1 ;mitogen : is a chemical substance that encourages a cell to commence cell division, triggering mitosis. A mitogen is usually some form of a protein. ;Mitogenesis : the induction (triggering) of mitosis, typically via a mitogen. ;molecular solid : a solid composed of molecules, rather than atoms ;molecular forms: ;molecules: (smallest unit of meaning in chemistry - (ball, intro to pg11) ;morbidity: rate the relative incidence of a particular disease in a specific locality ;mortality: ;mRNA expression: ;myocardial contractility: myosin N ;Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: NAD NAD+ NADP A coenzyme, C21H28N7O17P3, occurring in most living cells and utilized similarly to NAD but interacting with different metabolites. ;NADPH:The reduced form of NADP. ;neuropathy: ;nocturia: ;noncovalent bond : a type of chemical bond, typically between macromolecules, that does not involve the sharing of pairs of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions. ;Norepinephrines: ;nanomolar:The SI derived unit for amount-of-substance concentration is the mole/cubic meter.1 mole/cubic meter is equal to 1000000 nanomolar. hydrolysis is some chemical reaction that splits water into H and O ;noradrenaline (norephiphrine)- INN, norepi, NE, BAN. : a catecholamine with roles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. noradrenaline is released as a neurotransmitter from the sympathetic nueons affecting (@TODO effecting/affecting) the heart. increase in noradrenaline increases the rate of contractions. When norepinephrine acts as a drug, it increases blood pressure by increasing vascular tone (tension of vascular smooth muscle) through α-adrenergic receptor activation ;Nucleic Acid: The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA, ;nucleoside: a glycosylamines, consisting of a nucleobase bound to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar, via a beta-glycosidic linage. ;nucleotide: are molecules that, when joined, make up the individual structural units of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA. = O-Z = O ;obligate parasite: a parasitic organism that cannot complete its life cycle without exploiting a suitable host. ;oligomeric:A polymer that consists of two, three, or four monomers. Oral bioavailability - the degree to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the target tissue after administration via oral route ;Organelle: a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer. ;Orphan Drug : An agent that is useful for diseases too rare to provide more than minimal commercial potential is known as an orphan drug. Oxidase An oxidase is any enzyme that catalyzes an oxidation-reduction reaction involving molecular oxygen (O2) as the electron acceptor. Oxidoreductase In biochemistry, an oxidoreductase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of electrons from one molecule (the reductant, also called the hydrogen or electron donor) to another (the oxidant, also called the hydrogen or electron acceptor). This group of enzymes usually utilizes NADP or NAD as cofactors. oxidizing agent – it accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes reduced. oxytocin P ;Pandemic: an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region; for instance multiple continents, or even worldwide. A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic. Further, flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu. Throughout history there have been a number of pandemics, such as smallpox and tuberculosis. More recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic and the H1N1 pandemic. ;Parenteral: describes the introduction of nutrition, a medication, or other substance into the body via a route other than the gastro-intestinal tract, especially via infusion, injection or implantation.1 Parenteral nutrition refers to providing nutrition via the veins. ;plasma: ;pedal edema: ;pentose sugar: 5 carbon atoms ;peptidic:Any of various natural or synthetic compounds containing two or more amino acids linked by the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another. ;Permeability-glycoprotein (P-gp): act as a safety mechanism aimed at preventing toxins and xenobiotics from entering the general circulation by effectively pumping them back into the gut lumen. (membrane efflux transporters ) ;pharmacophore: an abstract description of molecular features which are necessary for molecular recognition of a ligand by a biological macromolecule. ;Phosphorylation: is the addition of a phosphate (PO43-) group to a protein or other organic molecule. ;pinocytosis : invagination of part of the cell membrane and the trapping of the within the cell of some extracellular constituents, the vesicle can then be released into the cell. use ful for big molecules such as insulin to pass the blood brain barrier ;Polymerase:The primary function of a polymerase is the polymerization of new DNA or RNA against an existing DNA or RNA template in the processes ;Porins: proteins which cross the cellular membrance and acts as a pore through which other molecules can diffuse ;Proteinuria:The presence of excess serum proteins in the urine. ;Proteolysis : the directed degradation (digestion) of proteins by cellular enzymes called proteases or by intramolecular digestion. ;protease (proteinase):(also termed peptidase or proteinase) is any enzyme that conducts proteolysis, that is, begins protein catabolism by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds that link amino acids together in the polypeptide chain forming the protein. ;psuedoirreversible: ;postnatal: refers to the child ;postpartnum :(less commonly puerperium) after birth, referring to the mother postnatal refers to the child ;preprohormone: ;proteolytic: ;perfusion: ;pressor base: is a substance (chemically classified as a base) capable of raising the blood pressure. ;pressor nerve: is a nerve that, when stimulated, increases the blood pressure. ;pressor reflex :is a nerve reflex that constricts arterioles (small blood vessels) and thereby increases the blood pressure. ;pressor substance: any substance that elevates arterial blood pressure. For example, prostacyclin (also known as prostaglandin PGI2) is a potent pressor agent. ;platelets: ;protein binding domain: is a protein domain which binds to a specific atom or molecule, such as calcium or DNA. ;protein domain: a part of protein sequence and structure that can evolve, function, and exist independently of the rest of the protein chain. Each domain forms a compact three-dimensional structure and often can be independently stable and folded. Many proteins consist of several structural domains. One domain may appear in a variety of different proteins. ;protein kinases: one of the largest groups of kinases, which modify and act on the activity of specific proteins. ;proteolytic cleavages : ;puerperium : The state of a woman during childbirth or immediately thereafter. Q R reactant - a "substance or compound that is added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction, or added to see if a reaction occurs."1 Although the terms reactant and reagent are often used interchangeably, a reactant is less specifically a "substance that is consumed in the course of a chemical reaction" reducing agent (also called a reductant or reducer) is the element or compound in a reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction that donates an electron to another species; however, since the reducer loses an electron we say it is "oxidized". ;reductase: Is an enzyme that catalyses a reduction reaction e.g. Ribonucleotide reductase E. coli nitroreductase ;reduction reaction:Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion. ;redox : reduction-oxidation ;refractory disease: is a disease that resists treatment, especially an individual case that resists treatment more than is normal for the specific disease in question. ;renally excreted: ; reverse transcriptase :also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into single-stranded DNA ;resection:partial removal of some organ ;retrovirus:an RNA virus that is duplicated in a host cell using the reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome. The DNA is then incorporated into the host's genome by an integrase enzyme. The virus thereafter replicates as part of the host cell's DNA. Retroviruses are enveloped viruses that belong to the viral family Retroviridae. ;ribosome : a large complex molecule which is responsible for catalyzing the formation of proteins from individual amino acids using messenger RNA as a template.1 This process is known as translation. Ribosomes are found in all living cells. S ;subarachnoid hemorrhage: @todo simple bimolecular association process saturated compounds - In organic chemistry, a saturated compound is a chemical compound that has of a chain of carbon atoms linked together by single bonds and has hydrogen atoms filling all of the other bonding orbitals of the carbon atoms. saturated fats - ;Septacaemia: Synonyms: sepsis, blood poisoning sinoatrial SLC solute carrier transports , up gradient transporters Sequelae- means that the death resulted from the late (residual) effects of a given disease or injury one year or more after the original event (WHO 1992–1994). steroid A steroid is a type of organic compound that contains a characteristic arrangement of four cycloalkane rings that are joined to each other. Examples of steroids include the dietary fat cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone. The core of steroids is composed of twenty carbon atoms bonded together that take the form of four fused rings: Sarcoma (from the Greek sarx (σάρκα) meaning "flesh") is a cancer that arises from transformed cells of mesenchymal (bone, cartilage , fa, muscle etc) Thus, malignant tumors made of cancerous bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, vascular, or hematopoietic tissues are, by definition, considered sarcomas. Specifity T Taxol - disrupts formation of the mitotic spindle teratogenic - relating to malformations of the embryo or fetus theraputic window - is the range of drug dosages which can treat disease effectively while staying in the safety ranges. More specifically, it is the range between the ED50 and the starting point of TD50 curve. tissue perfusion is the process of delivery of blood to a capillary bed in the biological tissue. The word is derived from the French verb "perfuser" meaning to "pour over or through." titrations - ;Transferase : an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group) from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor). For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase: A–X + B → A + B–X In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a coenzyme. ;Tropichic factors : Every cell in the body requires certain signals to stay alive -these signals are called trophic factors http://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/units/science/project2004/Celldeathregulation.htm ;tryptophan - humans must get this molecules from their diet as they do not have the enzyme to produce it ;Tubulin : structural proteins. Tubulin molecules polymerize to form microtubules in the cells cytoplasm ;Tyrosine : (Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 22 amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. Its codons are UAC and UAU. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Greek tyri, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the protein casein from cheese. It is called tyrosyl when referred to as a functional group or side chain. U ;unsaturated fats : In a chain of carbons, such as a fatty acid, a double or triple bond will cause a kink in the chain. These kinks have macro-structural implications. Unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature, rather than solid, due to the kinks in the chain. The kinks prevent the molecules from packing closely together to form a solid. These fats are called oils and are present in fish and plants. ;Unsaturated hydrocarbons : the double bond between two carbons prevents rotation of the atoms about the bond, locking them into specific structural formations. When attached atoms occupy similar positions on each carbon, they are referred to as "cis", and when they are on opposite sides, they are called "trans". Most natural hydrocarbons exist in the cis state, but artificially manufactured hydrocarbons are trans. The body lacks the enzymes to properly break down the trans configuration. This is why trans fats are viewed as dangerous and unhealthy, as they tend to build up. Unsaturated compounds of the two formations are classified as geometric isomers of one another. V ;vascular beds: ;venules: ;vide.: "Look" or "see." W X ;x-ray crystalography : useful for determining the structure of molecules Y Z ;zona glomerulosa : of the adrenal gland is the most superficial layer of the adrenal cortex, lying directly beneath the adrenal gland's capsule. Its cells are ovoid in shape and are arranged in clusters or arches (glomus is Latin for "ball").